The pomegranate botanical name Punica granatum, is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing between 5 and 8 m (16 and 26 ft) tall.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the fruit is typically in season from September to February, and in the Southern Hemisphere from March to May. As intact arils or juice, pomegranates are used in cooking, baking, meal garnishes, juice blends, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine.
The pomegranate originated in the region of modern day Iran, and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region and northern India.[3] It was introduced into America (Spanish America) in late 1500s and California by Spanish settlers in 1769.[3]
Today, it is widely cultivated throughout the Middle East and Caucasus region, north Africa and tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and the drier parts of southeast Asia.[3] It is also cultivated in parts of California and Arizona.[4] In recent years, it has become more common in the commercial markets of Europe and the
The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin pōmum "apple" and grānātum "seeded".[5]
Perhaps stemming from the old French word for the fruit, pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as "apple of Grenada"—a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing Latin granatus with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, which derives from Arabic.[6]
Garnet derives from Old French grenat by metathesis, from Medieval Latin granatum as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated from pomum granatum describing the color of pomegranate pulp or from granum referring to "red dye, cochineal".[7]
The French term grenade for pomegranate has given its name to the military grenade.[8]
The edible fruit is a berry, between a lemon and a grapefruit in size, 5–12 cm in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish skin.[3] The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1400 seeds.[9] Each seed has a surrounding water-laden pulp — the edible sarcotesta
that forms from the seed coat — ranging in color from white to deep red
or purple. The seeds are "exarillate", i.e., unlike some other species
in the order, Myrtales, no aril is present. The sarcotesta of pomegranate seeds consists of epidermis cells derived from the integument.[10] The seeds are embedded in a white, spongy, astringent membrane.[3]
P. granatum is grown for its fruit crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant,
and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter
rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they
can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can be tolerant of moderate frost, down to about −12 °C (10 °F).[11]
Insect pests of the pomegranate can include the pomegranate butterfly Virachola isocrates and the leaf-footed bug Leptoglossus zonatus, and fruit flies and ants are attracted to unharvested ripe fruit.[12]
Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25–
to 50-cm hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings.
Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails.[3]
Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size, exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency.[15] Scientists at Indian Institute of Horticulture Research are developing varieties tolerant to bacterial blight disease using sub-Himalayan accessions.
Pomegranate is native to Iran and northeast Turkey.[3] Pomegranates have been cultivated throughout the Middle East, South Asia, and Mediterranean region for several millennia, and also thrive in the drier climates of California and Arizona.[3][16][17]
Carbonized exocarp of the fruit has been identified in early Bronze Age levels of Jericho in the West Bank, as well as late Bronze Age levels of Hala Sultan Tekke on Cyprus and Tiryns.[citation needed] A large, dry pomegranate was found in the tomb of Djehuty, the butler of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt; Mesopotamian cuneiform records mention pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC onwards.[18]
It is also extensively grown in South China and in Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along the route of the Silk Road or brought by sea traders. Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates.[citation needed]
Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain.[19] The term "balaustine" (Latin: balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.[20]
The ancient city of Granada in Spain was renamed after the fruit during the Moorish period and today the province of Granada uses pomegranate as a charge in heraldry for its canting arms.[citation needed]
Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and America (Spanish America), but in the English colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," the English Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing John Bartram in Philadelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree... Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most salutiferous to mankind."[21]
The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, by John Tradescant the elder,
but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its
repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It
succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and
oranges from a correspondent in Charleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of "delitious" pomegranates with Noble Jones at Wormsloe Plantation, near Savannah, Georgia, in September 1765. Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates at Monticello in 1771: he had them from George Wythe of Williamsburg.[22]
After the pomegranate is opened by scoring it with a knife and breaking it open, the seeds are separated from the peel
and internal white pulp membranes. Separating the seeds is easier in a
bowl of water because the seeds sink and the inedible pulp floats.
Freezing the entire fruit also makes it easier to separate. Another
effective way of quickly harvesting the seeds is to cut the pomegranate
in half, score each half of the exterior rind four to six times, hold
the pomegranate half over a bowl and smack the rind with a large spoon.
The seeds should eject from the pomegranate directly into the bowl,
leaving only a dozen or more deeply embedded seeds to remove.[23]
The entire seed is consumed raw, though the watery, tasty sarcotesta is
the desired part. The taste differs depending on the variety or
cultivar of pomegranate and its ripeness.[citation needed]
Pomegranate juice can be sweet or sour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidic tannins contained in the juice. Pomegranate juice has long been a popular drink in Armenia, greater Iran, Israel and India, and now[when?] is widely distributed in the United States and Canada.[24]
Grenadine syrup long ago consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice, now is usually a sales name for a syrup based on various berries, citric acid, and food coloring, mainly used in cocktail mixing. In Europe, Bols still manufactures grenadine syrup with pomegranate.[25] Before tomatoes, a New World fruit, arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice, molasses, and vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods, and are still found in traditional recipes such as fesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over duck or other poultry and rice, and in ash-e anar (pomegranate soup).[26][27]
Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as anardana (from Persian: anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and Pakistani cuisine.
Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian subcontinent
markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days,
and used as an acidic agent for chutney and curry preparation. Ground anardana
is also used, which results in a deeper flavoring in dishes and
prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild
pomegranate variety known as daru from the Himalayas are regarded as quality sources for this spice.
Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream. Chocolate-covered seeds may be added to desserts and baked items.[citation needed]
In the Caucasus, pomegranate is used mainly for juice.[28] In Azerbaijan, a sauce from pomegranate juice narsharab, (from Persian: (a)nar + sharab, lit. "pomegranate wine") is usually served with fish[29] or tika kabab. In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish: nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as güllaç.[30] Pomegranate syrup or molasses is used in muhammara, a roasted red pepper, walnut, and garlic spread popular in Syria and Turkey.[31]
In Israel, pomegranate is used for Tabbouleh salad during Rosh HaShana.[citation needed]
In Greece, pomegranate (Greek: ρόδι, rodi) is used in many recipes, including kollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and raisins, legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate eggplant relish, and avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a liqueur, and as a popular fruit confectionery used as ice cream topping, mixed with yogurt, or spread as jam on toast. In Cyprus and Greece, and among the Greek Orthodox Diaspora, ρόδι (Greek for pomegranate) is used to make koliva, a mixture of wheat, pomegranate seeds, sugar, almonds, and other seeds served at memorial services.[citation needed]
In Mexico, they are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish chiles en nogada, representing the red of the Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor.
In the Indian subcontinent's ancient Ayurveda system of traditional medicine, the pomegranate has been used extensively as a source of traditional remedies.[32]
The rind of the fruit and the bark of the pomegranate tree are used as a traditional remedy against diarrhea, dysentery, and intestinal parasites.[32] The seeds and juice are considered a tonic for the heart and throat, and classified as having bitter-astringent taste plus a range of taste from sweet to sour, depending on ripeness. Thus, pomegranate is considered a healthful counterbalance to a diet high in sweet-fatty (kapha or earth) components.[33]
Especially when sweet, pomegranate fruit is nourishing for pitta or fire systems and is considered a blood builder. The astringent qualities of the flower juice, rind, and tree bark are considered valuable for a variety of purposes, such as stopping nose bleeds and gum bleeds, toning skin, (after blending with mustard oil) firming-up sagging breasts, and treating hemorrhoids.[34] Pomegranate juice (of specific fruit strains) is also used as an eyedrop, as it is believed to slow the development of cataracts.[35]
Ayurveda differentiates between pomegranate varieties and employs them for different remedies.[36]
Pomegranate has been used as a contraceptive and abortifacient by means of consuming the seeds, or rind, as well as by using the rind as a vaginal suppository. This practice is recorded in ancient Indian literature, in medieval sources, and in modern folk medicine.[37]
In the Northern Hemisphere, the fruit is typically in season from September to February, and in the Southern Hemisphere from March to May. As intact arils or juice, pomegranates are used in cooking, baking, meal garnishes, juice blends, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine.
The pomegranate originated in the region of modern day Iran, and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region and northern India.[3] It was introduced into America (Spanish America) in late 1500s and California by Spanish settlers in 1769.[3]
Today, it is widely cultivated throughout the Middle East and Caucasus region, north Africa and tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, and the drier parts of southeast Asia.[3] It is also cultivated in parts of California and Arizona.[4] In recent years, it has become more common in the commercial markets of Europe and the
Etymology ;
An opened pomegranate
Perhaps stemming from the old French word for the fruit, pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as "apple of Grenada"—a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing Latin granatus with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, which derives from Arabic.[6]
Garnet derives from Old French grenat by metathesis, from Medieval Latin granatum as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated from pomum granatum describing the color of pomegranate pulp or from granum referring to "red dye, cochineal".[7]
The French term grenade for pomegranate has given its name to the military grenade.[8]
Description ;
A shrub or small tree growing 6 to 10 m high, the pomegranate has multiple spiny branches, and is extremely long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years.[3] P. granatum leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm long and 2 cm broad. The flowers are bright red and 3 cm in diameter, with three to seven petals.[3] Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.The edible fruit is a berry, between a lemon and a grapefruit in size, 5–12 cm in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish skin.[3] The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1400 seeds.[9] Each seed has a surrounding water-laden pulp — the edible sarcotesta
that forms from the seed coat — ranging in color from white to deep red
or purple. The seeds are "exarillate", i.e., unlike some other species
in the order, Myrtales, no aril is present. The sarcotesta of pomegranate seeds consists of epidermis cells derived from the integument.[10] The seeds are embedded in a white, spongy, astringent membrane.[3]Cultivation ;
Illustration by Otto Wilhelm Thomé, 1885
Varieties ;
P. granatum var. nana is a dwarf variety of P. granatum popularly planted as an ornamental plant in gardens and larger containers, and used as a bonsai specimen tree. It could well be a wild form with a distinct origin. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[13] The only other species in the genus Punica is the Socotran pomegranate (P. protopunica), which is endemic to the island of Socotra. It differs in having pink (not red) flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit.[14]Cultivars ;
P. granatum has more than 500 named cultivars, but evidently has considerable synonymy in which the same genotype is named differently across regions of the world.[15]Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size, exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency.[15] Scientists at Indian Institute of Horticulture Research are developing varieties tolerant to bacterial blight disease using sub-Himalayan accessions.
Cultural history ;
Pomegranate, late Southern Song dynasty or early Yuan dynasty circa 1200–1340 (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
Carbonized exocarp of the fruit has been identified in early Bronze Age levels of Jericho in the West Bank, as well as late Bronze Age levels of Hala Sultan Tekke on Cyprus and Tiryns.[citation needed] A large, dry pomegranate was found in the tomb of Djehuty, the butler of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt; Mesopotamian cuneiform records mention pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC onwards.[18]
It is also extensively grown in South China and in Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along the route of the Silk Road or brought by sea traders. Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates.[citation needed]
Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain.[19] The term "balaustine" (Latin: balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.[20]
Coat of arms of Granada
Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and America (Spanish America), but in the English colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," the English Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing John Bartram in Philadelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree... Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most salutiferous to mankind."[21]
The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, by John Tradescant the elder,
but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its
repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It
succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and
oranges from a correspondent in Charleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of "delitious" pomegranates with Noble Jones at Wormsloe Plantation, near Savannah, Georgia, in September 1765. Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates at Monticello in 1771: he had them from George Wythe of Williamsburg.[22]Culinary use ;
Seeds in a plate
A bowl of ash-e anar, a Persian soup made with pomegranate juice
Grenadine syrup long ago consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice, now is usually a sales name for a syrup based on various berries, citric acid, and food coloring, mainly used in cocktail mixing. In Europe, Bols still manufactures grenadine syrup with pomegranate.[25] Before tomatoes, a New World fruit, arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice, molasses, and vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods, and are still found in traditional recipes such as fesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over duck or other poultry and rice, and in ash-e anar (pomegranate soup).[26][27]
An Indian pomegranate
Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as anardana (from Persian: anar + dana, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and Pakistani cuisine.
Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian subcontinent
markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days,
and used as an acidic agent for chutney and curry preparation. Ground anardana
is also used, which results in a deeper flavoring in dishes and
prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild
pomegranate variety known as daru from the Himalayas are regarded as quality sources for this spice.Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream. Chocolate-covered seeds may be added to desserts and baked items.[citation needed]
In the Caucasus, pomegranate is used mainly for juice.[28] In Azerbaijan, a sauce from pomegranate juice narsharab, (from Persian: (a)nar + sharab, lit. "pomegranate wine") is usually served with fish[29] or tika kabab. In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish: nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as güllaç.[30] Pomegranate syrup or molasses is used in muhammara, a roasted red pepper, walnut, and garlic spread popular in Syria and Turkey.[31]
In Israel, pomegranate is used for Tabbouleh salad during Rosh HaShana.[citation needed]
In Greece, pomegranate (Greek: ρόδι, rodi) is used in many recipes, including kollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and raisins, legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate eggplant relish, and avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a liqueur, and as a popular fruit confectionery used as ice cream topping, mixed with yogurt, or spread as jam on toast. In Cyprus and Greece, and among the Greek Orthodox Diaspora, ρόδι (Greek for pomegranate) is used to make koliva, a mixture of wheat, pomegranate seeds, sugar, almonds, and other seeds served at memorial services.[citation needed]
In Mexico, they are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish chiles en nogada, representing the red of the Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor.
In traditional medicine ;
Pomegranate seeds collected
The rind of the fruit and the bark of the pomegranate tree are used as a traditional remedy against diarrhea, dysentery, and intestinal parasites.[32] The seeds and juice are considered a tonic for the heart and throat, and classified as having bitter-astringent taste plus a range of taste from sweet to sour, depending on ripeness. Thus, pomegranate is considered a healthful counterbalance to a diet high in sweet-fatty (kapha or earth) components.[33]
Especially when sweet, pomegranate fruit is nourishing for pitta or fire systems and is considered a blood builder. The astringent qualities of the flower juice, rind, and tree bark are considered valuable for a variety of purposes, such as stopping nose bleeds and gum bleeds, toning skin, (after blending with mustard oil) firming-up sagging breasts, and treating hemorrhoids.[34] Pomegranate juice (of specific fruit strains) is also used as an eyedrop, as it is believed to slow the development of cataracts.[35]
Ayurveda differentiates between pomegranate varieties and employs them for different remedies.[36]
Pomegranate has been used as a contraceptive and abortifacient by means of consuming the seeds, or rind, as well as by using the rind as a vaginal suppository. This practice is recorded in ancient Indian literature, in medieval sources, and in modern folk medicine.[37]
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